Bohemia is absorbed into the Habsburgian countries (see Austria) inside Germany in 1527. This is confirmed in the 1620 war and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. By then Bohemia's elective kingship is abolished making Bohemia a hereditary possession of the archdukes of Austria. In 1804 Bohemia becomes a kingdom under the Empire of Austria. In 1849 it becomes a separate Austrian crownland and since 1867 it is part of the "Austrian" half of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
Despite cultural differences, the Slovaks share with the Czechs similar aspirations for independence from the Habsburg state and after the defeat of Austria-Hungary they voluntarily unite into Czechoslovakia (the Czechoslovak State). The country is later that year renamed Czechoslovak Republic. Czechoslovakia is a parliamentary democratic republic. Between 1918 and 1937 Tomáš Garrigue Masarýk is president. The first government is led by Karel Kramář of the Česka Státoprávní Demokracie (Czech Constitutional Democracy. ČSD) in an all-party coalition. He is succeeded in 1919 by Vlastimil Tusar of the Československá Sociálně Demokratická Strana Dělnická (Czechoslovak Social Democratic Workers' Party). Since 1920 the governments are mostly led by prime ministers from the Republik;anská sytama zemědělského a malorolnick=;e lidu (Republican Party of Farmers and Peasants, RSZML, official name since 1922). These include Jan Cerný (1920-1921, 1926) and Antonín Švehla (1922-1926 and 1926-1929) and Frantisek Udržal (1929-1932), Jan Malypetr (1932-1935) and Milan Hodža (1935-1938). During this time the Slovenská L'udova Strana (Slovak People's Party, SLS) of Andrej Hlinka develops into the leading Slovak party. Masarýk is succeeded in 1937 by Edvard Beneš, until that time one of the leaders of the social-liberal Československá Národně Socialistická Strana (Czechoslovak National Socialist Party, ČNSS).
Although Czechoslovakia is the only East European country to remain a parliamentary democracy from 1918 to 1938, it is plagued with minority problems, the most important of which concerned the country's large German population. Constituting more than 22% of the interwar state's population and largely concentrated in the Bohemian and Moravian border regions (the Sudetenland), members of this minority, including some who are sympathetic to Nazi Germany, undermine the new Czechoslovak state. Internal and external pressures culminate in 1938, when France and the United Kingdom yieldeto Nazi pressures at Munich and agree to force Czechoslovakia to cede the Sudetenland to Germany. Beneš resigns and goes into exile. He is succeeded by Emil Hácha. The right-wing Czech parties merge into the Strana Národní Jednoty (National Unity Party, SNJ). This party strives after an authoritarian democracy and it can form the government under Rudolf Beran.
Fulfilling Hitler's aggressive designs on all of Czechoslovakia, Germany invades what remains of Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939, establishing the German "Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia." By this time, Slovakia has already declared independence and becomes a puppet state of the Germans. The protectorate has its own prime ministers, all coming from the Národního Sourucenství (National Union, NS), the sole legal party. Prime ministers are Alois Eliás (1939-1941), Jaroslav Krejcí (1941-1945) and Richard Bienert (1945).
At the end of world war II, USSR troops overrun all of Slovakia, Moravia, and much of Bohemia, including Prague. Some parts of Bohemia are liberated by American forces. When in 1945 Germany is defeated, Czechoslovakia is reconstituted and Edvard Beneš regains presidency. Following Germany's surrender, some 2.9 million ethnic Germans are expelled from Czechoslovakia with Allied approval under the Beneš Decrees. Reunited after the war, the Czechs and Slovaks set national elections for the spring of 1946. The democrats hope the USSR would allow Czechoslovakia the freedom to choose its own form of government and aspire to a Czechoslovakia that would act as a bridge between East and West. But in 1946 the Komunistická Strana Česk;eskoslovenska (Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, KSČ) wins the elections and holds most of the key positions in the government and gradually manage to neutralize or silence the anti-communist forces. Although the communist-led government under Klement Gottwaldinitially intend to participate in the Marshall Plan, it was forced by Moscow to back out. Under the cover of superficial legality, the KSČ assumes complete power in 1948. From that time Czechoslovakia is a communist dictatorship under Klement Gottwald (1948-1953), Antonín Zápotocky (1953-1957) and Antonín Novotný (1957-1968). The country is renamed into Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in 1960.
In 1968 the reformist communist Alexander Dubček becomes leader of the KSČ. He wants to democratize society and starts a liberalization. His government takes practical steps toward political, social, and economic reforms. In addition, it calls for politico-military changes in the USSR-dominated Warsaw Pact and Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. The inititial reforms create great concern among some other Warsaw Pact governments. Later in 1968 USSR, Hungarian, Bulgarian, East German and Polish troops invade and occupy the country. This leads to the replacement of Dubček in 1969 by Gustav Husák. Husák surrenders the party leadership in 1987 to Miloš Jakeš. Jakeš is replaced in 1989 by Karel Urbanék. The communist regime collapses at the end of 1989 when Husák is replaced as president by former dissident playwricht Václav Havel.
In the transition period the country is renamed Czechoslovak Federal Republic. Later that year Czechoslovakia becomes a parliamentary democracy and is renamed Czech and Slovak Federal Republic. Marián Calfa of the Verejnost Proti Násiliu (Public against Violence, VPN) becomes prime minister. Dominating movement in the Czech part is the Občanské Fórum (Civic Forum, OF) and in Slovakia its counterpart VPN. Both movements are very heterogenous. The KSKSČ collapses. Both OF and VPN find however, that although they have successfully completed their primary objective, the overthrow of the communist regime, it is ineffectual as a governing party. The demise of both movements is viewed by most as necessary and inevitable. In 1992 a coalition of the conservative Občanská Demokratická Strana (Civic Democratic Party, ODS) and the Křestánska Demokratická Strana (Christian Democratic Party, KDS) becomes the largest party in the Czech part of the country and the Hnutie za Demokratické Slovensko (Movement for a Democratic Slovakia, HZDS) in Slovakia. Jan Stráský of the ODS becomes federal prime minister, but real power in the Czech part of the country restst with Václav Klaus of ODS and in Slovakia with Vladimír Mečiar of the HZDS
The federation is dissolved in 1993 and the country is seperated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic is a parliamentary democracy. President is Václav Havel and the first prime minister is Václav Klaus. After the elections of 1998 Miloš Zeman of the Česká Strana Sociálně Demokratická (Czech Social Democratic Party, ČSSD) becomes prime minister in a social-democratic minority government. The elections of 2002 lead to a coalition of the ČSSD with centrist parties under Vladimír Spidla. The Czech Republic joins the European Union in 2004. At the same time Spidla is succeeded by Stanislav Gross.